No Exit VS Scarlet Letter :: essays research papers

In the two works of literature The orange red earn and No Exit, the relationships between the main char passageers can be used to question morality, and understand justice. The relationships in both works follow the same principals and trends, despite the season periods they were written in.In the play No Exit, by Jean Sartre, the author attempts to describe his vision of what Hell is, a subject that many have pondered, however no(prenominal) really know. Sartre was under the impression that Hell had nothing to do with the fire and brimstone, as many people before him believed. He instead diffused his thoughts through the characters of No Exit. Obviously there arent any physical tormentsand yet were in hell. And no one else will come here. Well cover in this room together, the three of us, forever and everin short theres someone absent here, the official torturereach of us shall act as the torturer of the two others. (No Exit, p. 22) The three main characters in this play, Ine z, Garcin, and Estelle perform the hell they were banished to, but not by using the racks and red-hot pincers of the past, but by pain each other in a disturbed form of a love trilateral, where the love really doesnt exist.In this complicated triangle Inez is attracted to Estelle, who is in turn needs a man such as Garcin to go for and notice her. Thus Garcin can hurt Inez by pretending to desire Estelle, or hurt Estelle by not caring. Garcin however, will never be at rest until Inez recognizes that he is not a coward. Thus, the triangle is complete, and the three create hell for each other. Even when they realize the problem, they can do nothing to save each other. Theyve laid their snare damned cunninglyAlone none of us can save himself or herself were linked together inextricably.(No Exit p. 38) On top of this, none of the three are very naive with each other, and any relationship between them is strained at best. This is Sartres vision of hell.Very similar to Sartres hell, a re the relationships between the characters in The Scarlet Letter. In Nathaniel Hawthornes novel, The Scarlet Letter the priest of a Puritan settlement, Arthur Dimmesdale commits adultery with a young woman by the name of Hester Prynne. When Hesters husband, Roger Chillingsworth returns from overseas to find his wife with a newborn baby, and a brilliant scarlet letter across her chest, both constant reminders of her sin, he vows to find her partner and conjure his revenge upon him.

A Comparison of Stalin and Hitler as Dictators Essay -- WW II World Wa

A Comparison of Stalin and Hitler as Dictators Adolf Hitler This assignment will inaugurate you to two men, Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin. Two men that were responsible for genocide and mass destruction, similar in many ways though on two opposing sides with completely different fundamental ideas. Adolf Hitler was born as Adolf Schicklgruber in 1889 in Braunau am Inn, in Upper Austria and committed suicide in a Berlin bunker in 1945. He was Chancellor and Fuehrer of the Nazi-Empire from 1933 to 1945. Joseph Stalin was born as Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili in 1879 in the flannel town of Gori in Georgia and died of a brain haemorrhage in 1953 in Moscow. As a heir of Lenin he controlled the Soviet Union from 1928 until his goal in 1953. Although on two sides with fundamentally different beliefs, their dreadful politicss were very frequently comparable. Hitler became dictator through the put on of perfect propaganda, that was absolutely essenti al for the nazi-empire, and the vowelise of the German people, whereas Stalin was not elected but took over an already existing regime as a heir of Lenin. Both men had help of another(prenominal)s in order to be able to take the final step of gaining absolute power. Hitler had vigorously used Hindenburg and Von Papen, while Zinoviev was very much responsible for making Stalin , Lenins heir. The gaining of other peoples trust was essential for both, Stalin and Hitler careers and therefore is a noticeable similiarity. Hitler reached dictatorial power in 1933 after the Enabling Law was passed, which was only done after the fervent of the Reichstag, by which the Reichstag had decreased its influence. Stalin gained... ...lude that these two regimes were very similar in many ways. These regimes mold the entire history of 20th century Europe and still squander a great influence on our world today. There are sure enough differences in between Hitler and Stal in and their regimes although I think that the regimes were very similar in many ways, such as home front live, treatment of the opposition and the use industrialisation. In addition I must say that though Hitler had exterminate millions of Jews, had millions of fanatic supporters, a huge empire and many great successes , now 50 years later Stalins regime and the communism believes are of a greater significance to our time than Hitler is, as there are still communist countries the likes of China and North Korea that still have great influence on the political situation we are experiencing today. A Comparison of Stalin and Hitler as Dictators Essay -- WW II World WaA Comparison of Stalin and Hitler as Dictators Adolf Hitler This assignment will introduce you to two men, Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin. Two men that were responsible for genocide and mass destruction, similar in many ways though on two opposing sides with completely different fundamental ideas. Adolf Hitler was born as Adolf Schicklgruber in 1889 in Braunau am Inn, in Upper Austria and committed suicide in a Berlin bunker in 1945. He was Chancellor and Fuehrer of the Nazi-Empire from 1933 to 1945. Joseph Stalin was born as Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili in 1879 in the Caucasian town of Gori in Georgia and died of a brain haemorrhage in 1953 in Moscow. As a heir of Lenin he controlled the Soviet Union from 1928 until his death in 1953. Although on two sides with fundamentally different beliefs, their dreadful regimes were very much comparable. Hitler became dictator through the use of perfect propaganda, that was absolutely essential for the nazi-empire, and the voice of the German people, whereas Stalin was not elected but took over an already existing regime as a heir of Lenin. Both men had help of others in order to be able to take the final step of gaining absolute power. Hitler had cleverly used Hindenburg and Von Pape n, while Zinoviev was very much responsible for making Stalin , Lenins heir. The gaining of other peoples trust was essential for both, Stalin and Hitler careers and therefore is a noticeable similiarity. Hitler reached dictatorial power in 1933 after the Enabling Law was passed, which was only done after the burning of the Reichstag, by which the Reichstag had decreased its influence. Stalin gained... ...lude that these two regimes were very similar in many ways. These regimes shaped the entire history of 20th century Europe and still have a great influence on our world today. There are certainly differences in between Hitler and Stalin and their regimes although I think that the regimes were very similar in many ways, such as home front live, treatment of the opposition and the use industrialisation. In addition I must say that though Hitler had exterminated millions of Jews, had millions of fanatic supporters, a huge empire and many great successes , now 50 years later Stalins regime and the communism believes are of a greater significance to our time than Hitler is, as there are still communist countries like China and North Korea that still have great influence on the political situation we are experiencing today.

Akbar The Great Essay example -- Religious History

Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar was born on October 14, 1542 in Sindh. In 1540, his father Humayun was forced into exile by Afghan leader Sher Shah and Akbar had to spend his childhood in Afghanistan with his uncle. His childhood was spent in fighting and raceway instead of learning how to read and write, though he was very interested in art, architecture, music and literature. His father, Humayun, died when Akbar was very young and Akbar was crowned a Mughal emperor around the age of thirteen or fourteen. He was a Mughal emperor from 1556 to 1605. Under his rule the Mughals had most of the Indian subcontinent under their power. Akbar did not consolidate his power until he successfully won two battles, unmatchable which was with the descendants of Sher Shah Suri and the other one was with the Hindu King Hemu of Panipat. Before he consolidated his power Akbar was assisted and advised by Bahram Khan in running the affairs of the country. Bahram Khan was soon removed and Akbar freed himself from external specifys and ruled supreme. In order to preserve unity of the Mughal Empire, he had adopted many programs that won the hearts and loyalty of the Muslims and non-Muslim people of his realm. Along with his numerous military conquests, he had introduced a sequence of reforms to help consolidate his power. One of the heavy(p) known reforms of Akbar was his religious tolerance aimed at Hindu-Muslim unification through the introduction of a new religion known as Din-i-Ilahi. His tolerance is said to be influenced by a great Sufi leaders and his surrounding of people with liberal views, which this paper is going to explore how Akbars religious tolerant policies were a direct result of his influence by Sufism and the concept of Solh-... .... http//www.biography.com/people/akbar-the-great-9178163Pritchett, Frances . Religion at Akbars Court . Columbia University in the City of New York. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 May 2012. . Garbe, Richard Von. Akbar, emperor o f india. S.l. General Books, 2010. Print.Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar. Scribd. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 May 2012. .Din-i Ilahi. Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 04 May. 2012 . Ghodratollahi, Eshan . Akbar, The Doctrine of Shol-i-Khol and Hindu-Muslim Relations. Journal of Religious Thought A Quarterly of Shiraz University 21 (2007) n. pag. Archive of SID. Web. 2 May 2012.

Selecting Appropriate Graphics for Web Sites :: Websites Internet Computers Essays

Selecting Appropriate Graphics for Web Sites In giving recommendations concerning appropriate images for a bluster page of a weather vanesite to a beginning tissue developer, it is important for fine art to be relevant to a website, diverse in gender, age, and race, and appropriate in the workout of color. Using Relevant GraphicsI would first suggest that all graphics should be relevant to the subject of the website. If a graphic is not help any purpose at all, I would suggest not using it because some users may become annoyed at the unneeded use of graphics. This leads me to the cardinal fundamental purposes of graphics which Dr. Palmer discussed in class on Tuesday, February 17, 2004. Along with my course in technical editing, I have learned that graphics have all a motivational or functional purpose. I would explain to the web developer that a graphic should either draw the attention of the user (motivational) or caution in the explanation of the text (functional). After thinking of these two purposes, it would then be appropriate to address the type of graphic and context in which it exit be used. For a splash page of a website, I would recommend using a photograph or clip art graphic that is two ocularly appealing and defining of the subject of the website. I chose these two types of graphics because of their appropriateness to a universal audience. These types of graphics are usually both visually appealing and interesting. As Susan Hilligoss and Tharon Howard state in Visual Communication A Writers Guide, Readers take in a documents visual design and images immediately. We apply lasting memories of images across the documents we encounter. Thus the design affects readers first impressions of genre, interest, and importance (8). The graphic chosen will form the first impression of the reader, therefore, graphics must be chosen with much thought.Using Diverse GraphicsWhen choosing graphics consider that websites can be accessed by all ages and races. For this reason, a web developer should consider the appropriateness of graphics and be prepared to accept the consequences if pictures are not appropriate for younger viewers. As was discussed in class, graphics must be diverse in both ethnicity and gender. Graphics must have an even dispersal of both males and females and must not be one-sided to any race. The web designer has to remember that the world is very diverse and not everyone is just like him/herself.

Alcoholism :: essays research papers

AlcoholismI woke up from coma wondering what had happened to me. "I am going todie, what have I done to myself." "Does my start know?" She will kill me. "Iam so SCARED"     Most kids my age, who only had their grandma and grandpa never knew whatit was like to have a great-grandmother. Not only was she the best greatgrandma but she also played the role of a mother. To me I consider her to be anangel direct from heaven, to show some of us a few lessons about life.Her name was Josephine Catalici, an Italian woman born in Naples, Italyin 1906. She died this past summer. She was about 55" and precise beautiful.She was good hearted, gentle, devoted, and open handed in everything she did.Josephine was always out to help someone in need. She considered other peopleto be first priority. She was the type of mortal who was almost perfect, alwayspleasing someone else and making one feel proud of themselves.     My great-gra ndmother was the type of person to bring out the best ineveryone. As a boor, I needed that because my home had its ups and downs. Myparents were separated and I had been living with my mother. She was a youngparent and did things that most mother did not. For instance, as a child shewould leave me alone and sometimes physically abuse me. Therefore, I sometimeshad a hard time understanding why she treated me so differently. On the otherhand, I always received my explanations from my great-grandmother whom I called Mema. I am not the only individual who considered her to be this type ofcaring person. Everyone that had known her, horizon she was remarkable.     Unfortunately, she started getting ill and during her times of need, Itook care of her. in this time frame I knew that she was going to leave me soon.I was fourteen and dealing with a lot of changes in my life. I wish Josephinedid not have to be one of those changes. Although, she was, but the good thing,is that she died without suffering. She was never afraid of death because sheconsidered it to be another(prenominal) continuation of life. However, I could not dealwith the pain of being without my great-grandmother.I am now in eighth grade, not too happy to be here. But I know that Ihave to go to school. I felt like nothing. My mother will not stop beating me.I dont want to live anymore.

Alcoholism :: essays research papers

AlcoholismI woke up from coma wondering what had happened to me. "I am going todie, what direct I done to myself." "Does my get under ones skin know?" She will kill me. "Iam so SCARED"     Most kids my age, who only had their grandma and grandpa neer knew whatit was like to have a great-grandmother. Not only was she the best greatgrandma but she also played the role of a mother. To me I escort her to be anangel sent from heaven, to show some of us a few lessons ab expose life.Her name was Josephine Catalici, an Italian woman born in Naples, Italyin 1906. She died this past summer. She was about 55" and very beautiful.She was good hearted, gentle, devoted, and open handed in everything she did.Josephine was always out to help someone in need. She considered other peopleto be first priority. She was the eccentric person of person who was almost perfect, alwayspleasing someone else and making one feel proud of themselves.  &n bsp  My great-grandmother was the type of person to bring out the best ineveryone. As a child, I needed that because my home had its ups and downs. Myparents were separated and I had been living with my mother. She was a youngparent and did things that most mother did not. For instance, as a child shewould leave me alone and sometimes physically abuse me. Therefore, I sometimeshad a hard time understanding why she treated me so differently. On the otherhand, I always received my explanations from my great-grandmother whom I called Mema. I am not the only individual who considered her to be this type ofcaring person. Everyone that had known her, thought she was remarkable.     Unfortunately, she started getting ill and during her times of need, Itook care of her. in this time frame I knew that she was going to leave me soon.I was fourteen and dealing with a lot of changes in my life. I wish Josephinedid not have to be one of those changes. Although, she wa s, but the good thing,is that she died without suffering. She was never algophobic of death because sheconsidered it to be another continuation of life. However, I could not dealwith the pain of being without my great-grandmother.I am now in eighth grade, not too happy to be here. But I know that Ihave to go to school. I felt like nothing. My mother will not stop beating me.I dont want to live anymore.

Individual Critical Thinking and Society Exercise Essay

constitute a item in which scathing and creative thought could boast been procedured for a better outcome. Describe why it is all important(predicate) to think critically and creatively in similar situations. Define free will, truth, knowledge, and opinion. Explain how we use them to form thoughts. come upon three hindrances to the critical thinking process. jell methods for overcoming these hindrances. Identify a time in which you experienced a hindrance in critical thinking. Describe a method you could use to overcome the hindrances. Identify a message in advertising. Describe how you perceive the message of the advertisement. Try to determine the universe of the advertisement. Distinguish between your perception and the reality of the message. commonplace Questions General General QuestionsWrite 150- to 200 words on each of the following topicsDescribe a situation in which critical and creative thought could have been used for a better outcome. Describe why it is import ant to think critically and creatively in similar situations.Define free will, truth, knowledge, and opinion. Explain how we use them to form thoughts.Identify three hindrances to the critical thinking process. Determine methods for overcoming these hindrances. Identify a time in which you experienced a hindrance in critical thinking. Describe a method you could use to overcome the hindrances.Identify a message in advertising. Describe how you perceive the message of the advertisement. Try to determine the reality of the advertisement. Distinguish between your perception and the reality of the message.Avoid using your financial aid funds to go on a shopping spree at your camTo get this material Click this link https//bitly.com/12CdK9XAvoid using your financial aid funds to go on a shopping spree at your campus bookstore. This is common, especially among first-year students. When you learn that you have financial aid credit at the bookstore, it is tempting to buy things you dont rea lly need. Avoid this itch and your pocketbook will thank you later. General Questions General General QuestionsWrite 150- to 200 words on each of the following topicsDescribe a situation in which critical and creative thought could have been used for a better outcome. Describe why it is important to think critically and creatively in similar situations.Define free will, truth, knowledge, and opinion. Explain how we use them to form thoughts.Identify three hindrances to the critical thinking process. Determine methods for overcoming these hindrances. Identify a time in which you experienced a hindrance in critical thinking. Describe a method you could use to overcome the hindrances.Identify a message in advertising. Describe how you perceive the message of the advertisement. Try to determine the reality of the advertisement.

Stefan’s Diaries: Origins Chapter 28

We need to act now, Damon said when we reached the line of trees next to the field. The forest floor was slick with leaves, and there was no sound, non counterbalance of animals.Id spent the last minutes desperately racking my brain, trying to think of some way to save Katherine. But I couldnt. Our only commit was to enter the fray, say a prayer for Pearl and Anna, then focus on freeing Katherine. It would be incredibly dangerous. But there was no opposite way.Y es, I replied with an authority I did not feel. Are you ready? With come out waiting for an answer, I deftly moved toward the forest border, guided by the light sound of angry shouting. I could see the outline of the estate. Damon crept by my side. Suddenly I saw a large burst of flames erupt from the carriage house. I gasped, solely Damon simply glared at me.Just then, I heard the strident voice of Jonathan Gilbert. Found another oneI crept closer to the edge of the forest, until I had a full view of Jonathan slamming H enry from the tavern against the back of the police wagon. Noah held one of his arms, while another guard I didnt recognize held the other one. Jonathan held out his compass, frowning.Stake him he said. The guard drew his bayonet back and thrust it into the center of Henrys chest. Blood spurted as Henry shrieked into the iniquity air. Henry slumped to his knees, his eye wide and staring down at the bayonet lodged in his body. I turned toward Damon, both of us realizing that we didnt be possessed of any time to waste. Damon bit his lip, and I knew we were in this together. Even though we often acted differently, when it counted we thought the same way. Maybe thatthe shorthand communication we had as brotherswould be what would save us, and would save Katherine.Vampires I utter from the depths of the forest.We found one Help Damon called.Instantly, Noah and the other guard released their grip on Henry and ran toward us, their bayonets raised.Over there Damon panted, pointing deep i nto the forest as the two guards stepped closer. on that point was a man. We only saw a dark shadow, but he tried to attack my brother. As if to illustrate his point, Damon traced the sticky path of blood that had pooled onto my collarbone from my neck. I reached my own hand to that spot in surprise. Id forgotten that Katherine had bitten me. It seemed like a lifetime ago.The two guards looked at each other and nodded tersely. Y boys shouldnt be out hereou without weapons. Weve got some in the wagon, without weapons. Weve got some in the wagon, Noah called, before charging into the forest.Good, Damon said, almost under his breath. Lets go. And if you let me down, Ill kill you, he said, breaking away toward the wagon. I followed him, moving wholly by adrenaline.We reached the unguarded wagon. Low moans came from the inside. Damon kicked the back of the wagon open and leapt up to the platform. I followed, gagging when I entered. The scent of the wagon was acrid, a combination of bl ood and vervain and smoke. Bodies writhed in corners, but the wagon was pitch-black, making it impossible to tell whether the figures were vampires or humans or a combination of the two.Katherine Damon hissed, controversy down and roughly touching each of the bodies in his search for her.Stefan? a weak voice called from the corner, and I forced myself to not lash out, to not besprinkle in the bang of the voice, to not stare into those villainous eyes and tell her I hoped she got exactly what she deserved. Damon? the voice broke.Katherine. Im here, Damon whispered, making his way toward the far end of the wagon. I continue to stand, as if glued to the spot. As my eyes adjusted to the dim light, I began seeing things that were more terrible than anything Id ever seen in my worst dreams. On the floor of the wagon were almost a dozen bodies, some of people who I recognized from around town. Henry, a few regulars from the saloon, and even Dr. Janes. Some of the bodies had risk in the m, others had muzzles over their mouths, their hands and feet bound and their mouths seemingly frozen in wide Os of horror some were simply curled up as if they were already dead.The sight changed me, changed everything. I took off my hat and knelt down roughly, praying to God or whoever would listen to please save them. I remembered Annas kitten-like cries, the dull fear in Pearls eyes. Y they couldnt live here, butes, why did Father have to condone this brutal treatment? No one deserved to die like this, not even monsters. Why couldnt it be enough to simply run them out of town?Damon knelt down, and I rushed toward his side. Katherine was guile on her back, ropes binding her arms and legs. The ropes must have been covered with vervain, because there were terrible burns on the patches of skin that touched the twine. A leather mask covered her face, and her hair was matted with dried blood.I stood back, not wanting to touch her or even look at her, as Damon set to work untying the muzzle. Once she was free, I couldnt help but notice her teeth, her fangs, her true nature, obvious in a way Id never seen before. But Damon was gazing at her as if in a trance. He gently napped the hair off her face and slowly leaned in to kiss her lips.Thank you, said Katherine simply. That was it. And watching them, the way Katherines fingers stroked Damons hair, the way Damon cried into her collarbone, I knew that this was true love. As they continued to gaze into each others eyes, I pulled my knife out of my pocket and gently tried to cut the ropes that bound her. I worked slowly and carefully, knowing that any spare contact with the ropes would cause her even more pain.Hurry Damon whispered, sitting on his heels as he watched me work.I freed one arm, then another. Katherine sighed shakily, shrugging her shoulders up and down as if to make sure they still worked.Help cried a pale, thin woman I didnt recognize. She was huddled in the very back of the wagon.Well be back, I said, lying through my teeth. We wouldnt be back. Damon and Katherine had to escape, and I had to well, I had to help them.Stefan? Katherine said weakly as she struggled to her feet. Damon instantly rushed to her side and supported her fragile body.Just then, I heard footfalls near the wagon.Escape one of the guards called. We need backup. Theres been a breach in the wagonRun I called, pushing Damon and Katherine in the opposite direction of the guard. No escape All clear I shouted into the darkness, hoping that people would believe me as I hopped off the wagon.I saw the explosion of powder before I heard the shot. A loud wail rent the night air, followed quickly by another booming shot. Heart in my throat, I ran around the wagon, already knowing what Id see.Damon I cried. He lay on the ground, blood oozing from his gut. Yanking off my shirt, I put the linen on the injure to stanch the bleeding. I knew it was no use, but still I held the fabric to his chest. Dont shut your eyes, broth er. Stay with me.No Katherine. Save her , Damon rasped, his head flopping toward the damp ground. I glanced, wild-eyed, from the transport to the woods. The two guards were sprinting back, Jonathan Gilbert behind them.I stood up, and instantly my body was met with the explosive, piercing, agonizing hit of a bullet. I felt my chest exploding, felt the cool night air whoosh past my body as I fell back, onto my brother. I opened my eyes and looked up at the moon, and then everything faded to black.

Sports and Development: An Economic Perspective Essay

ntroductionThe relationship between sports and development can be analyzed from divergent angles some of these fetch received quite a bit of attention in the literature, new(prenominal)s less. An important shargon of the literature foc use ups on football (soccer), baseball, and basketball because these sports atomic number 18 merrimented most widely and because of the large scotch interests.It is important to first define development. pleasures obviously affects a persons physical development, and a deal his or her social and psychological development,1 all contributing to the wider development of society, a originator why the United Nations organized the Inter field Year of sport and sensual Education in 2005, and incorporates sports into its programs and policies (UN sport for development and peace, 2006). A nonher definition of sports development refers to the creation of a sports al-Qaida and a sports competition in growing countries. The introductory principle be hind this perspective is the universal right of all people to play and sport. This paper takes a specific view by focusing on the relationship between sports and economic development, in particular income product and poverty alleviation.We focus mainly on the causal effect from sports to development.2 In Europe and north-central America, sports are increasingly important to the economy. About 2 one thousand million people are employed in the sports economy in the 15 member countries of the European Union that is, 1.3 per cent of boilersuit EU employment. And the sports economy is growing. In Europe, in the early 1970s, the proportion of overall sport disbursals (for goods and services) to GDP was around 0.5 per cent. In 1990, the ratio ranged between 1 and 1.5 per cent of GDP in most European countries (Andreff and Szymanski, 2006). In the UK, the contribution of the sports economy to GDP is currentlyestimated at much than 2%. As a comparison this is three times as high as the current contribution of agriculture to GDP in the UK. Sports teams have contract large commercial and often multinational enterprises.For example, the value of Manchester United is estimated at 1.4 trillion dollars, which equals approximately the total annual output (GDP) of a demesne like Sierra Leone. The abstruseest US baseball team, the recent York Yankees, is valued at more than than 1 billion dollars and the average US football team is worth more than 0.5 billion dollars. However, comparable and representative data on the economic value of sports are non available, especially for development countries. In this paper we focus hence on two specific issues which seem particularly relevant for the impact of football on economic development in the context of the southeasterly African ball shape. The first is the impact of sports/infrastructure coronations on development the second is about migration of sports players and development.The Impact of Infrastructure Inves tmentsBids placed by outlook cities or countries to forces a mega-sports event, such as the ground cup, have tremendously increased over time. This increase in bids is caused by the law of supply and demand. The supply of mega-sports events rest constant while the number of candidate organizing countries and cities increases. unitary antecedent for this is that emerging and developing countries are increasingly competing with rich countries for hosting such events. An important argument that candidate governments put forward for hosting a mega-sports event is the perceived economic benefits that the event creates (Porter, 1999). They typically claim that events, such as the dry land transfuse, give a stimulation to business resulting in economic benefits which are larger than the appeals, including public supporting, from organizing the event (Noll and Zimbalist, 1997). Governments or sports entrepreneurs often hire consulting agencies to draft an economic impact report (Johnson and Sack, 1996). regardless of the mega-sports event, such reports from consulting companies al manners claim a huge positive economic impact.However, at that place is a lot of critique in the academic literature on the validity of these economic impact studies. Matheson (2002 2006) gets out that many (event-sponsored) studies exaggerate the economic impact on localcommunities and Porter (1999) states that the predicted benefits of public spending never materialize. single problem with many of these impact studies by consultants is that they use input-output analyses, which have been heavily criticized in the academic literature. Such input-output analyses start from the assumption of no capacity constraints, implying infinitely elastic supply curves. As a consequence, thither is no crowding out and an increase in demand leave always result in positive indirect effects only.As pointed out by Matheson (2006), exactly this omitted crowding out effect (next to the subst itution effect and leakages) is a primary reason why ex ante studies overestimate the economic impact of mega-events. Moreover, the multipliers used by these input-output analyses are doubtful and inaccurate because they are based on the pattern production patterns in an economic area. However, the economy may behave actually differently when hosting a mega-event, rendering the normal multipliers invalid (Matheson, 2006). Another problem is that these studies are always prospective (Coates and Humphreys 2003). Prospective studies need to be compared with retrospective econometric studies to see, in hindsight, whether they were correct.However, retrospective studies are often not executed because governments or mastery organizations have no incentives to order such a study (PriceWaterhouseCoopers, 2004). If conducted, most ex- military position studies state that the consequence that mega-sports events generate economic benefits is weak, at best. Thus, these few ex post analyses generally confirm that ex-ante studies exaggerate the benefit of mega-sports events.6 Siegfried and Zimbalist (2000) review several econometric studies and all these studies take no statistically significant evidence that building sports facilities stimulates economic development. Baade and Dye (1990) find evidence that the presence of a new or renovated stadium has an uncertain impact on the take of personal income and even mayhap a negative impact on local development relative to the region. Another frequently made comment is that, even if hosting a mega-event creates benefits for the organizing region, the question should be posed whether financing such an event is the most efficient use of public money.Kesenne (1999) argues that for example the World instill should only receive public funding if there are no alternative projects that yield higher benefits. However, as Kesenne (1999) admits, it is impossible to assess all alternatives, although it remains important tocalculate opportunity costs. A study which is highly relevant for the present paper is that of Brenke and Wagner (2006) who analyze the economic effects of the World Cup 2006 in Germany. The authors find that expectations that the World Cup would significantly increase spending on employment and growth were overestimated. Additional employment was generated only temporarily. The infrastructure and promotion costs in hosting the World Cup boosted overall economic performance by approximately 0.05% (estimates vary between 0.02 percent and 0.07 percent). The main beneficiaries of the World Cup were FIFA (187 million Euros) and the German Football familiarity DFB (21 million Euros). frugal Impact Assessments of the World Cup 2010 in South AfricaIn July 2003, Grant Thornton Kessel Feinstein issued the results of their economic impact assessment, ordered by the South African fellowship that submitted the bid to host the football World Cup to FIFA in September 2003. In their report (Grant Thornt on, 2003) they predict that the event will lead to direct expenditure of R12.7 billion an increase of R21.3 billion (1.2%) in the gross domestic product (GDP) of South Africa 159,000 new employment opportunities (3.5% of South Africas unemployed active population) and R7.2 billion additional tax revenue for the South African government. More recently, Grant Thornton estimated that the event will contribute at least R51.1 billion (2.7%) to the countrys GDP because more tickets will be available for sale (Gadebe, 2007). These results have been widely disseminated through the media.In the light of the foregoing literature review, there is reason to be sceptical about these predictions. A closer look into the numbers and the methods provides serious reasons to believe that these results are overestimations. First, Grant Thornton (2003) includes domestic residents expenditures at the event as direct benefits. However, this is merely a reallocation of expenditure and does not add to the G DP of a country (see e.g. Baade, 2006 Johnson and Sack, 1996). Second, according to Bohlmann (2006), the use of multipliers in the report is confutable and overly optimistic. Third, the report estimated that R1.8 billion would have to be fatigued on upgrades to stadia, and R500 million on infrastructure upgrades.However, a site published for the external marketing Council of South Africa (2008) reports much higher investment costs R8.4 billion for building and renovating ten World Cup stadiums (five have to be renovated and five have to be built). For example, the Durban stadium and the Cape Town stadium that have to be built cost respectively R2.6 billion and R2.85 billion. The cost of upgrades on the infrastructure, for example, upgrades of airports and improvements of the countrys track and rail network, is estimated now at R9 billion. Fourth, there are problems with the interpretation of the announced 159,000 new employment opportunities. The Local Organising Committee (LOC ) plans to recruit volunteers, ordinary people as puff up as specialists, to work at the World Cup.These volunteers are not paid, which sheds a different light on the interpretation of employment opportunities. Moreover, many of the jobs will only be temporarily. Because of the troublesome economic situation in Zimbabwe, and because of the announcements of the numerous job vacancies, there is a huge migration flow of skilled and semi-skilled construction workers from Zimbabwe to South Africa (Sapa AFP, 2007). These migrants may take up a considerable constituent of this employment.Do Impacts Differ with the Level of Development of the Host Country ? The most obvious point of reference when assessing the likely impact of the South Africa World Cup is to compare it with the most recent World Cup in Germany. However, important variances in the level of income and development between Germany and South Africa complicate such comparison. Thus we cannot merely transpose the economic im pact of the World Cup in Germany to South-Africa (Matheson and Baade 2004). An important difference relates to the costs of infrastructure investments.7 First, investment requirements in South Africa are larger. While South Africa has to build several new stadiums, Germany had (most of) them already, and investments were limited to upgrading. Possible even more importantly, the general infrastructure, for example related to transport, requires much more investment in South Africa.Second, regarding the costs, one should look at differences in cost of capital and cost of labor. The aforementioned (opportunity) costs of capital are typically higher in developing countries. Money spent on the event is money not spent in other areas, such as thehealth system. However, engrosss are comparatively low in developing countries which can lower the operating and infrastructure costs. Labor opportunity costs may also be low in developing countries with large unemployment. The post-World Cup use (return) of the investments differs as well. Concerning the stadia, these are well used in Germany with a large at angleance in the Bundesliga. It is more uncertain what the demand for the football stadia will be in South Africa later on the World Cup. In general, one would expect that the demand for these facilities is lower in developing countries, as sport is a luxury good, albeit that South Africa is a very specific country.There appears strong (and high income) demand for other sports (rugby) while less (and low income) demand for football. The extent of use of the stadia for these different demands will surely affect the benefits. Low use and high maintenance costs may even lead to a negative legacy of the World Cup. Evidence from the post-World Cup 2002 effects in South Korea and Japan indicates that concerns about the low use and high maintenance costs of the stadiums were justified (Watts, 2002). Regarding general infrastructure investments, one would go in that the pot ential effects would be large in South Africa. Its infrastructural deficiencies are often cited as a constraint on growth, and improving this because of the World Cup requirements could provide a major reduction in costs and provide a productivity boost to the economy.Sports MigrationPossibly more than in any other economic activity, migration is important in sports. The share of migrants in the main sports leagues in Europe and North America is large by average economic sphere allowards, in particular for the top leagues. There are cases where teams in first divisions in Europe have played with 100% migrants, hence without a star native player. The pattern of migration varies considerably crossways sports. For example, in (ice) hockey, the main migration pattern is from Eastern Europe to the US and Canada in baseball from Central America to the US and Canada in basketball, some European and Latin American players play in the US NBA at the same time, many US players who cannot ma ke it in the NBA play in European leagues and in football (soccer) the main migration is from the rest of the world to Europe, and among countries within Europe.Migration ofAfrican football players to Europe has grown exponentially over the olden decades. Studies on the impact of these migration patterns can be classified into different groups. Most of the literature on migration of athletes or sports players emphasizes and focuses on what are claimed to be negative implications. One negative implication could be referred to as the muscle drain (analogous to the literature on the reason drain) it refers to the negative effects on education and the combat of the local sports system. Related negative effects are argued to be low wages for developing country players, the illegal nature of the migration and transfers, and the lack of transparency meet it (e.g. Andreff, 2004 Magee and Sugden, 2002), inducing some to refer to this as a modern form of slavery. While there appears to be considerable ad hoc evidence on these effects (including on illegal activities and lack of transparency in international transfers),8 there is in general little representative evidence on these issues.In contrast, an extensive literature on the development and poverty impacts of general migration, which is generally based on much better data and evidence, suggests very different effects of migration. First, international remittances have in general a positive impact on development (Adams, 2006). Remittances reduce the level, depth and severity of poverty in the developing world, because a large proportion of these income transfers go to poor households, although not necessarily the very poorest (Adams and Page, 2003, 2005). Remittances also have a positive impact on investment in education and in entrepreneurial activities and can help raise the level of human capital in a country as a whole (Edwards and Ureta, 2003 Yang, 2005 McCormick and Wahba, 2001 Page, Cuecuecha and Adams, 20 08). While very little is known about the impact of remittances from sports remuneration, there is no ex ante reason to believe that these effects would be very different.Second, migration affects the level of human capital (in a broad interpretation) in the origin country in both positive and negative ways, what is sometimes referred to as the brain drain and the brain gain (Ozden and Schiff, 2005). Recent studies (not focusing on migration in sports) come to the conclusion that, although international migration involves the movement of the educated, international migration does not tendto take a very high proportion of the best educated, aside from a few labor-exporting countries. Hence the brain drain is generally limited (Adams, 2003). In fact, migration of the educated from a developing country may increase the incentive to acquire education, resulting in a brain gain. In other words, the dynamic investment effects reverse the static, depletion effects of migration on schooling (Boucher et al, 2005). Hence, in summary, taking into account dynamic incentive effects, the net impact seems to be a brain gain.These findings seem to conflict with arguments that the muscle drain in sports undermines the sporting capacity of developing countries. It is said to divert the most talented sportsmen, leaving the developing countries with the costs of their education without the possibility of regaining this investment in human (or athletic) capital. This muscle drain is also argued to erode the capacity of the home country to use its most talented athletes in international competition, explaining the poor performances of developing countries in world sport events (Andreff, 2004).However, the empirical evidence to support these arguments does not appear to stand up to a rigorous analysis, such as taking into account selection bias. Moreover, the analyses ignore any dynamic effects which seem to occur in developing country sports sectors where investments in local cook ery facilities have grown with the increased success of developing country players in rich country sports leagues, although there is no systematic evidence on this. Moreover, developing countries seem to have done better, not worse, since the start of substantial migration from their players to rich country competitions.For example, African teams have performed increasingly well in the past three decades in the World Cup. Third, the creation of sports schools with the explicit objective to prepare local players for playing in rich country sports leagues is the subject of much debate. While some of these schools are quite successful, the models are criticized for an unequal distribution of the gains (with the, often European, owners argued to capture a disproportionate share of the financial benefits), and for leading to a decline in education enrolment, and for creating social problems (Darby, Akindes and Kirwin, 2007).Fourth, the search for African players by European football club s is argued to be an example of wage dumping (Poli, 2006). These arguments are very similar to the issues in the general migration literature with migrants taking over jobs at lower wages in the host country an issue well studied in other sectors of the economy. Interestingly, one of the worlds leading experts, George Borjas of Harvard University claims that there is no clear evidence either way and that despite massive immigration from poorer countries in recent decades studies show very little impact on wages in the US (Aydemir and Borjas, 2007).Finally, while across the globe remittances are a very important source of capital, and particularly so in some developing countries, it is unclear whether remittances of migrated sports players are sufficiently capacious to have a significant impact on the development of a country or a region. On the one hand, the number of players migrating is very low-pitched compared to total employment. However, sports migration has grown rapidly a nd incomes are generally much higher in Europe or the US than at home, where incomes are considerably lower. However, there is no substantive evidence here one can only speculate or draw on ad hoc cases.Impact of the World CupGiven these potential effects of migration, how is the World Cup likely to affect these? Several changes may occur, some with opposing effects. If the World Cup gives a semipermanent boost to football in South Africa, either by creating facilities in areas of the countries or for parts of the population where football is popular, or by drawing in new parts of the population (and their incomes) into football, this may increase the demand for players from other African countries and thus in-migration of players. Another possible effect is that the World Cup may inspire young South Africans to become international players or may induce much needed investments in youth football and training facilities in South Africa. This could lead to a surge in football academie s in South Africa. This is what was observed in Senegal after the exceptional performance of the national team in the 2002 World Cup. This could then result in an increase in out-migration of footballplayers from South Africa to the rest of the world.Concluding comments Money is not everything.This paper has reviewed several potential economic effects of the World Cup. The arguments discussed so far seem to suggest that the economic impact of the World Cup in South Africa is likely to be less than argued by the consulting reports, but that there may be substantive benefits from improvements in the general infrastructure that result from the World Cup organization. However, money, of course, is not everything. There is a growing economic literature on the connection between happiness (or subjective well-being) and income. Within a society, studies find that, on average, persons with a higher income are happier than poor people (see e.g. Frey and Stutzer, 2002 Graham and Pettinatio, 2 002) but that after a certain threshold level of income, higher income does not seem to make people happier.Several reports also point out that benefits are not always tangible or cannot be expressed in financial terms, such as the increased confidence and pride of the population of the host country. Szymanski (2002) argues that organizing the World Cup will not boost economic growth although the government expenditures do improve the overall well being of its citizens because of these intangible effects. The study of Brenke and Wagner (2006) on the economic effects of the World Cup 2006 in Germany comes to a similar conclusion, i.e. that the economic effects were minor but that there was a positive effect on society for other reasons. The World Cup showed a positive image of the country and, as they say it was great fun, nothing more, nothing less.One could even hypothesize on the economic implications of this. There is evidence from the psychology literature that happier people pe rform better in general and also earn more income. Graham et al. (2004) find that factors such as self-pride and optimism that affect happiness also have positive effects on peoples performance in the labor market. This effect of happiness could be particularly relevant for the World Cup in South Africa, because the study of Graham et al (2004) also shows that these factors matter more for the poor. In this view, the extent to which the World Cup stimulates a positive attitude among poor people in South African societymatters especially. Hence, ensuring poor local people access to the games is important. In this light the initiative of the FIFA and the local organizers to make tickets more easily and cheaper available for local residents is a step in the right direction.ReferencesAdams, R.H.J. & J. Page (2003). International Migration, Remittances and impoverishment in growing Countries World Bank Policy inquiry operative Paper 3179. Adams, R.H.J. & J. Page (2005). Do Internati onal Migration and Remittances Reduce Poverty in Developing Countries? World Development, Vol. 33, Nr. 10. pp. 1645 1669. Adams, R.H.J. (2003). International Migration, Remittances, and the Brain Drain. A Study of 24 Labor-Exporting Countries Policy Research Working Paper 3069. The World Bank. Poverty Reduction Group, Washington, DC. Adams, R.H.J. (2006). Migration, Remittances and Development The particular Nexus in the Middle East and North Africa United Nations expert group meeting on international migration and development in the Arab region. Andreff, W. (2004). The Taxation Of musician Moves From Developing Countries In Rodney, F. & Fizel, J. (eds.) International Sports political economy Comparisons, Westport & London, Praeger 2004. pp. 87 103. Aydemir, A. & G. Borjas (2007). deflower-Country Variation in the Impact of International Migration Canada, Mexico, and the United States Journal of the European economical Association Vol. 5, Nr. 4 pp. 663 708. Baade, R.A. (1996) . Professional Sports as Catalysts for metropolitan Economic Development Journal of Urban Affairs Vol. 18, Nr. 1 pp. 1 17. Baade, R.A. & Dye, R. (1990). The Impact of Stadiums and Professional Sports on Metropolitan Area Development Growth and Change, Vol. 21, Nr. 2. pp. 1 14. Banerjee, A. and J. Swinnen (2004). Does a Sudden Death Liven up the Game ? Rules, Incentives and Strategy in Football Economic Theory, 23411-421 Banerjee, A., Swinnen, J. and A. Weersink (2007). Skating on Thin Ice Rule Changes and Team Strategies in the NHL Canadian Journal of Economics, 40(2)493-514 Bernard, A.B. & M.R. Busse (2004). Who Wins the Olympic Games Economic Resources and Medal Totals The Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 86, Nr. 1. pp. 413 417. Bohlmann, H.R. (2006). Predicting the Economic Impact of the 2010 FIFA World Cup on South Africa Working paper, University of Pretoria. Boucher, S., Stark, O. & J.E. Taylor(2005). A Gain with a Drain? Evidence from Rural Mexico on the New Econom ics of the Brain Drain Discussion Papers on Development Policy 99, ZEF, Bonn, October 2005. Brenke, K. & G.G. Wagner (2006). The Soccer World Cup in Germany A Major sporting and heathenish Event But Without Notable Business Cycle Effects DIW Berlin Weekly Report. Vol. 2, Nr. 3 pp. 23 31. Coates, D & B.R. Humphreys (2003). Professional Sports Facilities, Franchises and Urban Economic Development populace Finance and Management. Vol. 3, Nr. 3 pp. 335 357. Colin, F. (2008). 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Edwards, A. & M. Ureta (2003). International Migration, Remittances and Schooling Evidence from El Salvador Journal of Development Economics, Vol. 72, Nr. 2. pp. 429 461. Frey, B. & A. Stutzer (2002). Happiness and Economics. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Gadebe, T. (2007). strike out Parks Important in Drawing Crowds. Article on Buanews, available online at www.buanews.gov.za, 28 June 2007. Graham, C. & S. Pettinatio (2002). Happiness and Hardship Opportunity and Insecurity in New Market Econ omies. The Brookings Institution Press, Washington, DC. Graham, C., A. Eggers & S. Sukhtankar (2004). Does Happiness Pay? An Exploration Base don Panel Data from Russia Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization. Vol. 55, pp. 319 342. Grant Thornton (2003). SA 2010 Soccer World Cup Bid Executive Summary. Available online at www.polity.org.za. Humphreys, J.M. & M.K. Plummer (1992). The Economic Impact on the State of Georgia of Hosting the 1996 Olympic Games. 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Economic and Fiscal Impacts of Mega Sporting Events A General Equilibrium Assessment Public Finance and Management. Vol. 6, Nr. 3 pp. 346 394. Magee, J. & J. Sugden (2002). The World at Their Feet Professional Football and International Labor Migration Journal of Sport and Social Issues, Vol. 26, No. 4. pp. 421 437. Matheson, V.A. (2002). Upon Further Review An Examination of Sporting Event Economic Impact Studies The Sport Journal, Vol. 5, Nr. 1. Matheson, V.A. (2006). Mega-Events The Effect of the Worlds biggest Sporting Events on Local, Regional, and National Economies Working Pa per. Nr. 06-10. Worcester, MA College of the Holy Cross Department of Economics. Matheson, V.A. & R.A. Baade (2004). Mega-sporting Events in Developing Nations Playing the Way to Prosperity? Working Paper. Nr. 04-04. Worcester, MA College of the Holy Cross Department of Economics. McCormick, B. & J. Wahba (2001). Overseas Work Experience, Savings and Entrepreneurship amongst Return Migrants of LDCs. 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How Did the Bbc Represent the General Strike of 1926?

How did the BBC represent the e re solelyyday move to its get winders? Introduction This project is primarily a study regarding one of the biggest counterbalancets in the emotional maintain cartridge clip of the BBC and indeed the life of British trade unionism. The worldwide use up of 1926 has moulded the steering that we receive both(prenominal) of these today and is an authorized aspect of British history. This project principally focuses on the media at the time, and leave alone facek to find out how the BBC portrayed the prevalent Strike to its listeners during this end.We de go amodal value find out the attitude that the BBC took on the events of the General Strike and go forth find out how it put these across to its listeners at that predict. In cast to find out the answer to this question we must first split it up in to several important chapters. Below is the list of chapters and the subjects that they leave behind discuss and their importance in this s tudy. Chapter one go away outline who the BBC listeners were at that leg and leave behind find out whether the customary expunge had changed who their listeners were.It get out go put up to the genuinely roots of the BBC and volition bet at the programing that it plyd and how this affected the listeners that they had assimilateed. This persona will besides explore the estimation of constructing the listener an idea put forward by Reith to determine who his listeners were. It will and so shade at their listeners during the universal let on and will visualizek to find out the change that occurred during this acid in time. This similarly requires us to watch at the staff that worked at the BBC and as well as at Sir John Reith, who had his own ideas about the standards that the BBC should work towards.Chapter two will discuss the ideology of the BBC prior to the general necessitate and how this ideology impacted on their reporting of the general train. It will face at how Sir John Reith 1 put his ideas in to the BBC. We will explore the idea of a common expediency and what a populace go meant to Reith, in the chief(prenominal) looking at what Reiths ideas of the term service were. It will explore the BBCs destiny to maintain its indep oddmentence and why this was so important to Reith. We will alike discuss the threat that was posed to their in independence during the trike. It will overly look at the idea of educate, inform and entertain, an intact part of what we now know as the Reithian ethos. We will peck whether the general borrow changed these core beliefs of Reiths or whether they remained intact doneout the period of the strike. It will likewise discuss the idea of soci commensurate superstar, a nonher one of the core beliefs of the BBC. We will hear to find out how much subject fieldism was a part of this and whether the BBC could catch been figuren as universe nationalist during the strike.This chapter will stress to argue us how this ideology affected the communicates to their audience and how the audience saw the BBC. These first two chapters will play an integral part in the rest of the project , however to understand them both we fatality to look at them in their separate chapters. formerly we select done this we domiciliate then look at how they affected each otherwise . These will form the basis from which will then be satis movery to view the BBC and the general strike in detail. Chapter three will allow us to rate the other forms of media that were avail commensurate at that time.This chapter will look at the parole topics at the time of the general strike we will in the main assess the two national accounts at the time, the British publish and the fooling Worker. It will look at the effect that the general strike had on the motifs and how the freedom of the fight back was so greatly affected by the printers firing out on strike. This will link in with the way that the BBC listeners changed during this time as the lack of intelligence servicepapers left a hole in the media, which the BBC hoped that it could fill. We will in like manner 2 ake a look at how the BBC monopoly over the intelligence at this time affected the way that they send out. This is important because they put the BBC in to a pivotal, and difficult, position. The BBC had two sides to provide cultivation to, scarcely how could the BBC do this without taking sides? Chapter four will look at the political influences that had an effect on how the BBC was viewed at that localise of time. It will look at the relationship that the BBC had with the regime. It will look at the various personalities within the brass and how they affected the way that the BBC put forward its vents.It will likewise explore the influences that were coming from outside and will try to find out if these actually impacted upon the way that the BBC actually broadcast to its listeners. One of the nigh important influences that was upon the BBC was that of the church their ideas were in arresting with that of the BBC, yet were never broadcast. This is a major part of the influences that welcome compete a part in this industrial dispute. In this chapter we will look at the Marxist supposition of the media and will assess the idea of this when applied upon the BBC.This will allow us to exit whether the BBC was a tool of the command figurees during the general strike. These sections will allow us to answer the question of how the BBC presented the general strike to its listeners. It will show us how the relationship amidst the BBC and the authorities had been formed even in the early days of the BBC. It will also show us w here(predicate) the ideas of the BBC, that still exist to this day, originally came from and the changes that have taken place through out the BBCs past. It shows us, on a wider scale, the importance of the media today in all disputes.This is because they control what we see and hear today, this applies to the forward-lookingspapers, television and radio. Their input jakes 3 change the way that the a dispute goes by getting the public to support or oppose it. As we will see the media, mainly the BBC, proved to be an effective form of propaganda for the stack during the general strike. During the course of this project we will encounter a look in to Marxist theory of media. This will allow us to see whether Marxists historians believe that the BBC was a tool of the ruling yres during the course of the general strike.For this we need to look at the idea of class conflict at every level of this dispute, including the media. There is no doubt in historians minds that the British Gazette was definitely the tool of the ruling class. However, the role of the BBC has been contest by many historians through out the course of the twentieth century. The Marxist theory of media will let us see whether the BBC was a tool of the ruling class of their own accord or whether they had influences upon them that dictated the way that they broadcast during the strike. 4 Chapter one Who were the BBC listeners to begin with the strike?Did the strike change this? This section will look, in depth, at the appoint up of the BBC listeners before the general strike and in to the strike itself. In arrangement to do this we need to explore their order of listener research from the beginning this was a method cal lead constructing the listener. From this we can find out why the BBC was of very limited appeal during their first years, even though they cherished to allow publicize a much larger audience, especially after the First World War. We will also view the effects that this had on public perception of the BBC during the general strike.The general strike did open up the BBC to a wider appeal and this is virtuallything that we need to consider. We need to know why this happened and assess the implications of this on the way that the BBC was seen. The BBC method of constructing the listener was the BBCs early attempt at listener research. This method was required in order to find out what pile what to listen and discipline about from the radio1. This attempt at research used the BBC staff, who were mainly gist class. This meant that the ends of the research were going to be tailored to a in-between class audience, sooner than for the whole population.We can already see that the early years of the BBC were aimed at the middle class. The results of their listener research reflected upon the schedule that took place. The earlier years of the BBC gave precedence to serious music. This was definitive music and whatsoever dance music. However the BBC did non play much serious dance music 2 By serious 1 Crisell, Andrew, An Introductory memorial of British bare (Rout conductge, 1997) pp. 38-9 2 Cardiff, David & Paddy Scannell, A Social History of British publicize Volume one 1922-1939 (Ba sil Blackwell Ltd, 1991) pp. 82-183 5 music we can realize from the risque moral tone of the BBC that the playing of serious music meant that it was non crude. This programming already shows us that the works classes were non included in the programming of the BBC. Their pastimes, such as Accordion playing and Community singing were leave out by the BBC 3. This was not a deliberate mistake, but was due to the fact that the middle class workforce of the BBC did not have knowledge of on the job(p) class lives. This allowed the listener that was constructed to be a middle class one.Not tho did it mean that the programming that the BBC provided was aimed towards the middle class, it also meant that the core values and beliefs of the BBC were aimed towards the middle class as well. The belief in a luxuriously moral tone is something that was prevalent in the early years of the BBC 4. The BBC did not aim their broadcasts solely at the middle classes. They aimed to incorporate a ll sections of society in their broadcasts. As Scannell and Cardiff rightly make the point that the BBC was trying to provide information to those that had just recently got the vote after the First World War5. This included many of the operativess class.This shows us that the BBC did genuinely insufficiency to allow the whole population access to the broadcasts, unfortunately because of the middle class values and standards and the fact that wireless(prenominal) was a very expensive product for operative class battalion, many were unable to grasp anything from wireless until the general strike. The method of listener research did not cause the BBC problems until the strike. This was because the wireless technology was very brand-new, and whence was expensive. The Revophone crystal set and headphones in 1923, cost ? 2-10s 6. The average income of a 3 4 5 6 Crisell, Andrew (1997) p. 9 Cardiff, David & Paddy Scannell (1991) p. 7 Ibid. p. 11 The Museum of Technology, Wireless and TV . Accessed on 2 nd June 2012 6 family at the end of 1923 was at 65s-6d per week, not taking in to account their expenditure on food, rent and other necessities 7. We can in that locationfore see that the cost of even the cheapest wireless sets was out of the price range of an average family. The wireless sets were affordable only to the middle class, this meant that the BBCs method of listener research had worked from 1922-1926, as they had aimed the programming at the social group that could afford to buy the technology.We can in that respectfore see that the working class were unable to listen to the BBC because firstly the price was high and that the programming was not suited for their tastes. However, Andrew Crisell makes the point that the BBC listeners were actually at sooner a high rate. In 1923 he said that the license payers for the BBC were around 80,000, but the estimate for this is kinda conservative because at that place were loopholes in order to avoid pay ing the fee. He also states that in 1924 there were over double the amount of people earshot to wireless than in 19238.This means that there may have been some working class listeners if they were able to afford the wireless sets. However, they were still not recognised as creation listeners from the view of the BBC. They assumed that all people that were listening were middle class. In 1926, this all changed with the general strike. The working class had more access to the technology. This was not because they were able to afford it, but it was because shops installed wireless loudspeakers in public places and those that had wireless invited working class people in to their homes to listen to the broadcasts 9.This allowed the 7 Florey, RA, The General Strike of 1926 Historical Perspectives (John Calder Ltd, 1980) p. 188 8 Crisell, Andrew (1997) p. 16 9 Briggs, Asa, The History of transmit in the United Kingdom Volume one The Birth of Broadcasting (Oxford University Press, 1961) pp. 338-339 7 working class access to a facility which they had not been able to use before, but already held views upon. The Daily Herald just before the strike warned people about the propaganda that would come from the BBC and told people that they should disrupt the transmissions10.This indicates to us that the working class were sceptical that the reporting of the strike would be impartial on the BBC. The working class already held negative views about the BBC, due to the ways that they had been neglected in the early years of the BBC. The working class were not for the BBC, however the BBC was the only readily available source of news that was around at the time of the strike. This was because many of the printers of the newspapers had gone on strike and many of the newspapers that were available did not have the capacity to dispatch them on a national level 11.This gave the perfective tense opportunity for the BBC to gain more listeners. With the introduction of loudspeakers , we can find evidence that the broadcasting of the BBC news reports was well received. The North Wales Weekly, The Brighton Herald and The Warwick Advertiser all had articles that express how thankful the working class were that loudspeakers had been installed in the public places12. We must also take a look into the politics of the listeners of the BBC.Firstly, we know that the majority of people before the general strike were of a middle class background this is not to say that all of these people held their political allegiances with the Conservatives, many middle class people would have much preferred to vote for the Liberal Party or the bear on Party. We cannot simply say that even the majority of the listeners held one 10 Perkins, Anne, A Very British Strike 3 whitethorn-12 whitethorn 1926 (Macmillan, 2006) p. 126 11 Symons, Julian, The General Strike (House of Stratus, 2001) pp. 55-157 12 Broadcasting Press Cuttings whitethorn 1926, Book 1E, BBC Written Archives, Caversham 8 political allegiance because this is unknown and would simply be using the stereotypical model of someone who is middle class to assume their political preference. This is also the subject with the working class during the general strike. It is unlikely that all of the working class were voting for grasp, purely because they had just seen the Russian revolution happen and most people, in general, were afraid of Communism or Socialism.The beat back Party in the 1920s stood for Socialism and stood for the working class, but so did the Liberal Party in a very different way. However, they were also in decline because of Lloyd Georges selling of honours. The Conservative Party were the prevalent party of the 1920s and this was because they appealed to both the working and the middle classes. We can see that the Conservatives were normal from the 1924 general election. They cared to get 47. 2% of the vote, whereas labor party only managed 33% and the Liberal Party only managed t o obtain 17. 6% of the vote 13.It is clear to see that the Conservatives were dominant in the elections. The population of the country in 1924 stood at around forty-four million people, with or so half of the population voting for the Conservatives it is sure to say that there were many working class men and women voting for the Conservatives. Now we should be able to see that the usual idea of a class listening to the BBC does not always meant that they would have been listening with the stereotypical political beliefs, as the beginning of the 20 th century saw large changes in politics.We can see that the strike had a profound effect on the make up of BBC listeners. The working class were wanting to listen to the BBC in order to provide them with the news that they needed. However the middle class, who had been listening to the BBC since its 13 Tetteh, Edmund Election Statistics UK 1918-2007 House of Commons subroutine library,. Accessed on 2nd June 2012 9 existence, were still listening to the BBC because they enjoyed the programmes that were broadcast. This shows us that there were the beginnings of a conflict emerging here.We have seen that the BBC were not well looked on by the working class. They believed that they held middle class values, therefore they were going to support the government and provide the country with propaganda. It shows us that John Reith, whom had treasured to promote social unity between all classes was now allowing the BBC to engender a source of class antagonism. However, the beliefs of the BBC had a more profound effect than we have seen here, which we will assess in the next chapter. 10 Chapter two The Reithian ethos how did the strike impact this?This section will assess the core ideas of the Reithian ethos from 1922-1926. It will assess how these affected the BBCs reporting of the general strike, or how these values were altered by the strike. The core beliefs that shall be discussed are the idea of a public service and what this meant to John Reith, for this we will have to view the idea of what a service is and how this affected the way that the BBC put across this in their broadcasts. We shall then be seeing how their ideas of inform, educate and entertain failed until the general strike and then caused the BBC problems going in to the strike.We will also take a examine the way that Reith treasured to try and advocate social unity and the failure of this aim during the strike. This section will also entail a view in to impartiality, which the BBC failed to commit to during the general strike but hoped that it would be able to commit to. Lastly we will be looking at the independence of the BBC and seeing how this took precedence as the main value that John Reith valued the BBC to maintain, throughout the strike. These impacted upon the broadcasts of the BBC and ultimately had an effect on the way that the listeners of the BBC perceived the broadcasts.The idea of a public service as we know it now is a free service that is provided to all members of the population, irrespective of their status or their earnings. The British Broadcasting Company under John Reith had very specific ideas of what a public service should provide to the people and how it should operate. Firstly, we must look at the concept of a service. Scannell and Cardiff argue that Reiths idea of a service was a 11 Victorian one whereby the BBC would provide education and information to the working classes in order to make their lives better 14.We should not view Reiths idea of service this way he cherished to provide the middle class and the working class with a service that would inform and educate, whilst attempting to unify all classes. To make the BBC only a service for those that were less well off in society would not be abiding by another part of the Reithian ethos that of social unity. Reith especially treasured to inform the listeners on government issues that were important to the nation, prima rily those that were industrial and political 15. In 1922, he was unable to allow the BBC to attempt at this end because he was restricted to do so by the government.They only allowed the BBC to have one news report per day, at seven oclock in the evening16. This meant that in the put up up to the general strike the BBC had not had the relevant have a go at it to be able to deal with such a large industrial matter. This meant that the BBCs reporting of this was not of the best nature, they did not know what would have been expected of them. They were disorganised as can be seen in some of the broadcasts that were put out. Many of the stories had been literally delete and glued on to paper, often on top of other broadcasts, with a lot of text around the edge 17.We can see that this lack of experience in the face of such a large task resulted in a haphazard operation. However, the BBC did provide information, during the strike, on the services that were available to the people. It did provide information on all of the buses and trains that were running at this time in its news reports 18. This meant that the BBC was providing relevant 14 Cardiff, David & Paddy Scannell, A Social History of British Broadcasting Volume One, 1922-1939 (Basil Blackwell Ltd, 1991) p. 9 15 Ibid. p. 32 16 Crisell, Andrew, An Introductory History to British Broadcasting (Routledge, 1997) p. 5 17 General Strike intelligence service Bulletin, whitethorn 8th 1926, BBC Written Archives, Caversham 18 General Strike News Bulletin, May 12th 1926, BBC Written Archives, Caversham 12 information to all sections of the population. However, it could also be seen by the strikers as a way to show that there are services still working and that the lives of ordinary people were still happening as normal. So, even this idea of information that Reith wanted the BBC to achieve could be perceived as being an anti-strike tool. The idea of education was something that John Reith also took very gravely from the very beginning.His belief was that he should be giving people what they need, not what they want Reith panorama that if he were to do this then he would be prostituting it 19. callable to this the early years of the BBC did attempt to educate the population on music and culture, however, it is important to remember that they were broadcasting to a middle class audience. They were already implicated in these. Reith wanted to educate all backgrounds and classes on classical music, opera, theatre. He also wanted to educate on important matters, both politically and industrially again.However, as we have seen the BBC was unable to do this in its infancy. The BBC also was unable to achieve the goal of education, because this largely middle class tool had not reached the working class, meaning that the working class did not have access to these middle class pastimes. The middle class were relatively well educated on these subjects, as these were their past times. Even if the w orking class had have been able to listen to the BBC, the method that this education took was one that Percy Pitt described as like taking a schoolboy to the subject Gallery and expecting him to appreciate Velasquez and El Greco 20.This tells us that there was no explanation to the music being broadcast, so even if the working class had have been able to listen they would not have understood the music that they were hearing. 19 Briggs, Asa, The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom Volume One The Birth of Broadcasting (Oxford University Press, 1995) p. 7 20 Ibid. p. 275 13 The idea of entertainment was the only slightly successful part of the image of a public service that the BBC actually managed, but only until the general strike. It even did this in small doses, and aimed at the middle class.During the general strike, when the BBC was more accessible to the working class, the Bristol Times and Mirror explained that the public wanted to listen to the news broadcast on the BBC, but the music was not something that they were appreciative of21. This is because the working class wanted to hear the news, they did not want to listen to classical music, they may have listened to the other programmes on the BBC if there was apathy from the company with the working class. The next value that the BBC held during its infancy was that of social unity.John Reith wanted to use the BBC in order to attempt to try and get all of the population, regardless of their class, to listen and appreciate the wireless together 22. This is something that he did not manage to do, even before the general strike. The conk chapter demonstrated that the working class were unable to listen to the BBC and it was regarded by the working class as being a middle class tool. This meant that the idea of social unity going in to the general strike could not be achieved through wireless, because of the views already held by working class people.During the course of the strike, the BBC did attempt to advocate social unity. The section Sentences for the disorderly gave details of the people that had been caught committing crimes and had been sentenced23. This shows us that the BBC was trying to promote peace in some way. However, the working class would not have seen it as a high moral tone, another one of Reiths beliefs24. They would have seen it as an attack on the 21 22 23 24 Broadcasting Press Cuttings, Book 1E, BBC Written Archive, Caversham Cardiff, David & Paddy Scannell (1991) p. 3 General Strike News Bulletin, 8th May 1926, BBC Written Archive, Caversham Cardiff, David & Paddy Scannell (1991) p. 7 14 strikers. The way that it is put across is not explained and it is expected that the listeners will understand the reasoning behind it. We can also see that it tried to advocate social unity through the selections of news reports from the British Worker they promoted peace between the two sides. The BBC wanted to try and gain social unity from all of the populatio n and wanted to put them under one banner namely the British masthead. The BBC was fairly nationalist in its address to social unity.We can see that the celebration at the end of the general strike consisted of the BBC playing the hymn Jerusalem on the piano. The lyrics to this song are very nationalist. The last four lines of the song consist of I will not cease from mental fight, Nor shall my sword sleep in my hand, Till we have built Jerusalem, in Englands green and pleasant land 25 This clearly defines the position that the BBC took on the general strike. They were thankful that the country was united, and that there was no problems within classes. The BBC wanted to keep the people united for the pride of their country.The BBC wanted to broadcast items that were in the national interest, but how did they define what was in the national interest. They took it that the majority of people would wanted to have heard about ceremonial occurrences within the country26, because they h eld pride in their country. The problem with the BBC trying to gain social unity through the radio is that the working class already held their views about the BBC. Their belief that it was a middle class tool 25 Jerusalem Hymn Accessed 2nd June 2012 26 Cardiff, David & Paddy Scannell (1991) p. 13 15 vershadowed the way that they tried to promote peace during the strike. Cardiff and Scannell make the point that during crises the BBC, through advocating social unity, would have to chose between their allegiances to the people and the government. This ultimately is unbowed, however the BBC managed to keep a medium between the two even though the BBC were representative of the government during the strike they still managed to provide an important service to the population and provided them with the news that they needed. The BBC also wanted to be an impartial form of news from its beginning.This was something that was not really tested up until the general strike, because this was th e BBCs first largest event since its existence. However, as discussed previously, a relatively inexperienced BBC was reporting on a large event. Impartial news was always going to be difficult and it did prove to be difficult. This was mainly because their source of information, Reuters, had an anti-labour bias27, meaning that the BBC was also of an anti-labour bias. It did not matter if they did not want to be, the news automatically excluded an entire viewpoint in the country.The problem with impartiality also comes in the news that they selected from the newspapers at the time. The articles that were selected from the British Worker were that of a conciliatory nature28, where as others that the BBC chose were actively for the government and taken from the British Gazette. We can infer here that the BBC did attempt impartiality by using papers from either sides of the argument, however it cannot be considered to be impartial because of the shutting relationship that it had with t he government this is a factor that we will discuss more later in the project.For now we need to know that the BBC was coaxed into presenting the strike in a certain way through baneful threats. 27 Cardiff, David & Paddy Scannell (1991) p. 26 28 Ibid. pp. 109-10 16 The largest factor that played a part in the way that the BBC operated from 1922-1926 was the idea of its independence. Reith wanted to stanchly defend the BBCs independence. He believed that if the BBC was hijacked then it would be better for him, but worse for the BBC and the country29. He thought that people would have got commercial radio, giving people what they thought they needed, and this is something that he was strongly against the BBC ecoming. During the general strike, we see the BBC independence come under threat from the government. This is because there were several in the cabinet that wanted the BBC to constrain a tool for the government against the strike, Baldwin thought that it could broadcast the go vernments message all over the country and especially to the middle class30. However, Reith wanted to maintain the independence of the BBC. This meant that in order for the BBC to keep this, they would have to stay on the better side of the government. Due to this the BBC did slant more of their news articles towards the government.This is not due to the want to be broadcasting purely the governments view, it is because there was a threat from the government aimed at the BBC. This is something that remained unresolved through out the period of the general strike. In Reiths diaries, he says that the situation with the government had remained unresolved and that Baldwin had said that the BBC would keep some of its independence, and ended with Not quite fair 31. It meant that the BBC was hanging in the balance through out the period of the strike. They wanted to be independent because they wanted to be able to fulfil the idea of a public service.Reith wanted the BBC to be able to infor m, educate and entertain. 29 Reith, John. Into the sneak (Hodder and Stoughton, 1949) p. 109 30 Perkins, Anne. A very British Strike 3rd May- 12th May 1926 (Macmillan, 2006) pp. 32-3 31 Reith, John (1949) p. 112 17 Over all we can see that the BBC did hold some values before the general strike that were well meaning. They did want to provide an impartial service that all people could use and gain something from. They also wanted to promote peace and unity between the classes through the medium of radio, even if this unity meant that people united under the flag of their country.They also wished to remain independent in order to be able to provide such a service to their listeners. However, because of the inexperience of the BBC in previous years, not all of these were able to be achieved, and during the general strike other values were less important. This meant that the BBC during the general strike felt that the independence that it had was its most important asset and that they would attempt to provide a public service that allowed all of their values to shine through. However, their belief that the independence was the most important idea infers that the others had to become slightly more redundant.This indicates that the BBC was reporting the general strike from a disadvantaged position. It seems impossible that the BBC would have been able to provide an account that the entire population would be able to listen and agree with. However there are other factors that allowed the BBC to do this. 18 Chapter three What other sources of news were available to the public? How did this affect the position of the BBC? This chapter will aim to assess the other news that was in production at the time of the general strike. In order to do this we mainly need to look at the two main papers that were available at the time.These were firstly, the government paper The British Gazette and the paper of the Trade Unions Council, The British Worker. We will look at how the t wo papers put across their news and why they were relatively unsuccessful attempts at propaganda. This will then lead us to look at other national papers that were available at the time and the difficulties that they encountered. Once we have assessed these we can then look at the position of the BBC during the strike. Firstly, we will be looking at the TUC paper, The British Worker. This paper was primarily created because the printers had gone out on strike.The lack of national press meant that there was no way for those out on strike to receive national news through out the period of the strike. This meant that the paper was purely a creation in order to provide information to the strikers. We can see that even on the first edition of the paper, the British Worker labelled itself as the official strike news publicize 32. Therefore the news that was inside consisted purely of events that took place in regards to the strike. It was there in order to provide workers from around the country with their news. The paper was also a way for the TUC to keep morale high amongst the striker.They often embellished the efforts of the strikers around the country and often praised the efforts of 32 The British Worker, 5th May, 1926, British Library publisher Archive , Colindale 19 the striker. They provided a summary of the country that did not contain any negative content about people going back to work. The only negative content that they provided is that about the government and the way that they were going about trying to combat the strike and their aims, and failing, this is evident from the issue of May 11th, whereby the sub-heading states that the Cabinets new tactics defeated by indisputable facts 33.This would have kept the morale of the strikers high so that there would have been no need to become angry and violent it shows them that they had taken the right steps in the strike. The appeal of the British Worker was greatly restricted, because of the fact that t he paper was only reporting on news of the strike. It meant that those that were on strike or those that were sympathetic to the strike were the only audience that the paper had. The General Council of the TUC were not intending the paper to be of mass appeal, they wanted it to purely give guidance to the strikers on a national level.They wanted to consolidate pieces of news from around the country and put them in to one publication. This is because they wanted to promote justice and order. This was important to the TUC because they wanted to prove that their aim was not revolution as suggested by the government. Many of the articles show that they wanted to promote law and order, the May 5th edition of the bulletin provided an article called Dos for bad days which told strikers that were upset or angry to try and keep their minds off the strike and provided them with activities to do34.They did not want to have strikers being violent and breaking the law as it would weaken their c ause and warrant a response from the government.. We can also see that the bulletin was a way for the strikers to respond to the government. The article entitled Labours reply to the Premier on May 6 th is a response to the 33 No Slackening The British Worker, 11th May 1926, British Library Newspaper Archive, Colindale 34 Dos for difficult days, The British Worker, 6th May 1926, British Library Newspaper Archive, Colindale 20 overnment as is the constant emphasis on the strike being industrially motivated and not constitutionally35. These are all responses to articles that had been placed in the British Gazette, said in Parliament or broadcast over the wireless, which the TUC collected information on. We can already see that the British Worker and The British Gazette were worried more about attacking each other publicly than actually providing the public with apt news. The British Gazette had other motives than those of The British Worker. Their radical aim appeared to be to stifl e the press by commandeering as much paper as they could to print on.This meant that they not only commandeered The British Workers supply of paper, but other national papers, such as The Times36. We can see that the paper was not produced contain news that would interest many people. The sports pages had usual cricket and other sports but then was filled with news about Ice Hockey in Canada 37, which not many British people would have been interested in during 1926. It was clearly an attempt to use as much paper as they could The British Gazette was a way for the government to stop the press from producing any form of sympathetic news towards the strikers. This was mainly aimed at the British Worker.However having said this the paper did provide the country with propaganda.. The British Gazette was also full of quite nationalist propaganda. This was because the government saw the strike as an attack on ordinary British people. The paper on May 6 th showed that they believed that Br itish public were under attack. It read 35 Labours reply to the Premier The British Worker, 6th May 1926, British Library Newspaper Archive, Colindale 36 Taaffe, Peter, 1926 General Strike Workers grasp Power (Socialist Publications, 2006) p. 108 37 Ice Hockey in Canada The British Gazette, 5th May 1926, British Library Newspaper Archive, Colindale 1 Constitutional government is being attacked. Let all good citizens whose livelihood and labour have thus been put in peril, bear with fortitude and patience the hardships with which they have been so abruptly confronted 38 The idea of the government being attacked then appears to be translated in to an attack on the ordinary British person. This propaganda supplemented that of poems and cartoons that all aimed to make the British people proud of themselves and look disdainfully down at the strike. The image displayed on the May 12 th front page with the caption Under which flag? clearly shows this nationalist propaganda from the Briti sh Gazette. It pictures two men one with a union jack flag, looking proud and stood up tall and the other pictures a man that is in the background with a flag saying TUC 39. This clearly shows us the stance that the paper took during the strike, but it was not a successful paper on the whole. The problems that existed with The British Gazette were that firstly the paper was very controversial. The news that it provided often frightened many of the moderate supporters of the government40. Therefore, any wider market for the paper was not possible because their views were so extreme.The paper also lied about the extent of the strike, they actually made the strike out to be less supported and less effective than it was in order to keep the morale of the country up. Their article in the May 6 th edition contained an article called Why base on balls to work? This gave details of all the buses and tube lines that were running. In this, it said that the LGOC had over two hundred buses on the streets of London, when the actual figure was at eighty-six41. This could have even been a genuine 38 Message from the Prime Minister, The British Gazette, 6th May 1926, British Library Newspaper Archive, Colindale 39 Under which flag? The British Gazette, 12th May 1926, British Library Newspaper Archive, Colindale 40 Symons, Julian, The General Strike (House of Stratus, 2001) p. 155 41 Ibid. pp. 153-4 22 mistake on the part of the British Gazette, but the way that the paper was so controversial meant that the figure appears to be a deliberate lie. Their lies did aim to keep the countries morale up, but unfortunately they happened to do the opposite and many that read the British Gazette became angry through out the period of the strike because they did not give a true representation of how the strike was occurring..The diffusion figures of the British Gazette do appear to be impressive, however the problem with these figures is that they only show how many issues were provided to people the figures for the distribution of the paper through out the strike stood at around two million, according to the British Gazette 42. It does not show us how many people actually enjoin copies of the British Gazette. A writer for The Times said that they saw copies of the British Gazette being put in to houses that had not ordered a copy and that he saw more than one copy go to houses that did order one 43.This shows us quite clearly that the aim of the British Gazette was to stifle the press, especially that of the British Worker. Their main aim was to use as much paper as they possibly could in order to quieten the views of any newspaper that was remotely sympathetic to the strikers. Marx had said that the government was an executive committee of the ruling classes 44. They always act in the interests of the ruling classes and as such would attempt to defend their interests in any way possible. This argument is true if we look at the British Gazette this was set up t o defend the mine owners against the strike.They were against the strike in every way possible and said that the strike was not constitutional. This is clearly the government defending the ruling classes against the working class. Marx also utter that 42 The British Gazette, May 1926, British Library Newspaper Archive, Colindale 43 Symons, Julian (2001) p. 160 44 Taaffe, Peter, The General Strike Workers Taste Power (Socialist Publications, 2006) p. 107 23 the government would use all resources necessary in order to defend the ruling classes, because they were for their interests45.This is why the British Gazette took the supplies of paper away from the remaining press at the time. We should be careful to think that because the printers were out on strike that there were no national newspapers. This is not the case there was actually a great wealth of national newspapers that were all available in smaller formats during the course of the strike. Many of them were not available for all the way through the strike with the exception of the Times, which managed to print a copy of their paper every day, albeit it was a single sheet46.The problem that many of the papers had is that they did not have enough paper to print what they wanted because the British Gazette was using many of the supplies of paper. This meant that they were only able to print certain articles that they deemed as important. This possibly would have restricted their appeal. However, there was also problems with the distribution of these national papers. The problems with the distribution occurred because there was no one available to during the strike to deliver the papers.This meant that unless the newspaper had their own fleet of private cars, such as The Times47, then there would be very few ways of getting the paper out. All of this has a relevance for the BBC and affected its position greatly. It meant that because there was very little press that was available nationally, the BBC was abl e to provide the news for a large amount of the population. The British Gazette and the British Worker both had very limited audiences and this is something that the BBC capitalised on.Local papers were useful for people, however, they were not able to give an account of the 45 Taaffe 46 Symons, Julian (2001) p. 158 47 Ibid. p. 157 24 state of the whole country. So although the BBC may not have been trusted completely during the course of the strike as many people felt that it was the only credible form of news that was available. The British Gazette was too extreme for those that did not sympathise with the strikers and those that did not sympathise with the strikers would not have wanted to read the British Worker.The lack of press also meant that the BBC was able to produce more news broadcasts, rather than just one per day. Baldwin told Reith that the country was relying on the BBC for their news48, this meant that for the first time the BBC was able to provide a service that wo uld have great appeal to people. The BBC did not have much in the way of experience of news reporting and quite often during the strike, many of the reporters were said to have sounded nervous. However, the majority of the population wanted to listen to the news as a result of there not being any real news available.As we can see, the results of there being a lack of national press at the time meant that there was an opportunity for the BBC to become the countries primary source of news. This was something that John Reith had been hoping for since the beginning of the BBC in 1922, but unfortunately had been unable to do this as he was blocked from doing so by the national papers. This meant that the general strike was the only chance that the BBC had to dominate the press. It did this, but struggled to do so because of the constrictions that were upon it at the time.The next chapter will assess the other factors that played a part in the BBC becoming a national voice. 48 Reith, John , Into the Wind (Hodder & Stoughton, 1949) p. 107 25 Chapter four What external influences had an effect on the ways that the BBC broadcast to their listeners during the general strike? There were several external influences that had an effect on the way that the British Broadcasting Comapny broadcast during the general strike. This part of the project will seek to explore these in further depth as we have touched on them in previous chapters.These are relevant because they gave the BBC an image during the strike and led to their listeners forming opinions on them. This section will be split in to several different external factors that have played a part firstly we will assess the impact of the largest influence on the BBC, that of the government. The BBC held close links with the government during the strike and were able to broadcast fairly often. The last external influence that played a large part during the strike was that of the church.The Church of England broadcast a series of speeches and appeals through the period of the strike, as this was in keeping with Reiths beliefs. However, there was a conflict been the church and the government in regards to a proposed broadcast, from the Archbishop of Canterbury, that we will assess. This will allow us to see the way in which the BBC dealt with this and look at where their allegiances lay.. The government was closely linked to the BBC during the general strike. Not only in terms of the organisation of the BBC, but also from the listeners point of view.Many of the listeners believed that the BBC had been commandeered by the Conservative government, a point that will be discussed in depth further in this chapter. It is true that the BBC did have a close relationship with the government, but they had not been 26 commandeered. During the strike Winston Churchill wanted to commandeer the BBC 49, but the way that the BBC broadcasts were put out allowed them to maintain their independence. Another factor that has not yet been discussed is that the BBC had similar beliefs to the government at the time.The wire that John Reith sent to Stanley Baldwin clearly showed the stance that was taken on the strike Assuming the BBC is for the people and that the government is for the people, it follows that the BBC is for the government50. Whether this message was sent by John Reith as a way to keep the government from commandeering the BBC is unclear, but it does appear to tell us that the BBC and government held similar values. However, interpretations of this may have been that the belief that the BBC were against the general strike and were on the side of the government.We cannot even be sure to say now that our interpretation of the message is correct because it would be unfair to do so. We can also see that the government had an influence on the broadcasts that were put out on the wireless. Even though the BBC was meant to be an impartial organisation, that provided balanced news to the listeners , many of the broadcasts were inquire for the public to become volunteers. On May 9th a bulletin was broadcast that came directly from the government and was asking for civil constabulary reserves 51.On the surface, this appears clearly not to be impartial and in favour of the government. However, the broadcast was a Reiths way of attempting to maintain peace and order. This was something that the BBC 49 Perkins, Anne, A Very British Strike 3 May-12 May 1926 (Macmillan, 2006) p. 124 50 Cardiff, David & Paddy Scannell, A Social History of British Broadcasting volume one 1922-1939 (Basil Blackwell Ltd, 1991) pp. 32-3 51 General Strike news bulletins, 9th May 1926, BBC Written Archives, Caversham 27 aimed to promote during the strike.To ordinary people, it would have looked liked bias in favour of the government. Unfortunately what the listeners of the BBC did not hear is the broadcasts that were turned down by the BBC such as the Organisation for the Maintenance of Supplies was not a llowed to broadcast on the BBC because it would not have been non-political52. This is something that the listeners of the BBC would not have known about, and as a result they would not have seen this impartiality. The listeners took a view of the BBC on only what they heard or what they were told.If they did not hear something, then there was no way of them sharp about it. Unless, like the Archbishop of Canterburys broadcast, it becomes public knowledge. Reiths aim of maintaining peace meant that many of the broadcasts from the government had to be broadcast as they often regarded keeping the country running through the appeal from volunteers. This was seen by Reith as being integral to keeping the peace and maintaining the law and order of the country, on May 9 th an appeal for volunteers on the trains was broadcast53, the running of the trains was integral and would have kept the country going.Even though it did help the government, and ultimately helped the BBC stay independent . The interpretation to the new BBC listeners, such as the strikers themselves, may have been that the BBC was wanting to end the strike and was in no way representing the strikers in the broadcasts. However, if we also look at what the listeners did not hear as well, this is just as important in looking at the relationship with the government. It can give us some more ideas of the relationship between government and BBC. We can see that the government paper took precedent over any other paper during the strike.We can see this from the May 12 th 52 Perkins, Anne ( 2006) pp. 70-1 53 General Strike news bulletins, 9th May 1926, BBC Written Archives, Caversham 28 wireless bulletin, only The British Gazette was mentioned as being on sale. However, underneath this was a broadcast that had been taken out of the script that listed all of the other papers that were available54. Broadcasting about the British Gazette is something that Reith may have felt was an important matter in maintainin g the independence of the BBC, as it was the government paper.They may also not have broadcast certain items because they would have caused anger and outrage towards the government. On May 9 th a broadcast had been crossed out that said that Baldwin had gone to visit the London Zoological Gardens55. This was removed because it would have firstly led to the BBC being commandeered and is also would have caused anger towards the government as this was a time of crisis and Baldwin was visiting tourist destinations, rather than focusing on the general strike. The close relationship that the BBC had with the government would have been ecognised by their listeners during the strike. The tone and language that was used through out the BBC also sounded official and very middle class. A bulletin on May 12 th described a situation in Birkenhead, which stated that some hooliganism was promptly suppressed 56. This so called hooliganism was not explained in the broadcast and would have been inter preted by the working class listeners as being fairly derogatory. The broadcasts intention appears to be in order to promote peace and make an example out of the hooligans, but in its language it appears as an attack on those in support of the strike.In regards to the end of the strike, the BBC put out a broadcast that mentioned people that were outside Downing Street, chanting Baldwins name in support of him 57 . This was probably a communicate of the events that were occurring but coupled with the way that the end of 54 55 56 57 General Strike news bulletins, 12th May 1926, BBC Written Archives, Caversham General Strike news bulletins, 9th May 1926, BBC Written Archives, Caversham General Strike news bulletins, 12th May 1926, BBC Written Archives, Caversham General Strike news bulletins, 12th May 1926, BBC Written Archives, Caversham 9 strike was broadcast it meant that people would have believed that the BBC were glad that the strike had been defeated. This is the way that it ma y have appeared to the working class, and the returning strikers. We can see that the end of the strike was announced and a piano played Jerusalem58, so it was made very grand. This was a celebration that peace had returned to the country it was not a celebration that the strike had been defeated. However, to a relatively new audience this is how it would have appeared to them. The lyrics to Jerusalem are very nationalist.We have seen the last lines of the hymn and they invoke a sense of national pride. This hymn not only allows us to see that religion did play a large part in the BBC, but it also appears to glorify England which after the strike would have came across to the strikers as being a celebration that the government had succeeded. Indeed, this is if the working class had understood the meaning of the song. It is not something that would have interested the majority of the working class people as they would only have wanted to hear the news reports and not the BBCs views o f the events.The hymns actual intention was a celebration that England had pulled through this industrial dispute, however it could have been perceived, by the strikers, that the BBC were thankful that the general strike had been defeated. However, the Reithian ethos stood to promote social unity through all classes and unite as the British rather than as classes. The playing of Jerusalem is put into context when we know this however many new listeners of the BBC would not have known this about the BBC. Opinions of the some listeners at the time of the strike show that many believed that the BBC had been commandeered.The Daily Herald, a day before the strike began, warned 58 Leishmann, Marista, Reith of the BBC My Father (St Andrews Press, 2006) pp. 65-66 30 their readers against the propaganda on the BBC 59. This was a relatively large paper, that sympathised with the working class and would have had the belief that the BBC was basically government propaganda, because it was a mid dle class past time. Beatrice Webb commenting on the BBC also said that she believed that the company had been commandeered by the government, although she did give credit to the BBC for giving the TUC airtime.However, Beatrice Webbs political allegiance lay with the Labour Party, who were a left wing political party. They would have had clear opposition to the Conservative government as firstly, the Labour Party was a party for the workers, and secondly because the Labour Party were wanting to be in government themselves. This shows us that Beatrice Webb was going to be for the general strike and against the Conservative government, this meant that anything that sounded against the strike was seen as a hindrance.The TUC and the Labour Party were therefore already at a disadvantage during the strike because the BBC and the government held similar values and were closely connected, this made it hard for them to get their point across on the BBC especially the Labour Party. We can fir stly see that the news that the BBC got from Reuters was already of an anti-Labour bias, so they already got very little coverage. This left the Labour Party in a bad position because the BBC would also not allow them to broadcast speeches on air.On Monday 10th May, Ramsay MacDonald asked John Reith if he was able to broadcast a speech this was not allowed by the government60. Throughout the period of the strike the BBC did not give consideration to the Labour Party. This would not have held true to the 59 Perkins,Anne (2006) pp. 125-6 60 Briggs, Asa, The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom Volume One, The Birth of Broadcasting (Oxford University Press, 1995) pp. 244-7 31 belief of an impartial BBC and would have affected the way that the BBC listeners heard their news.Those that were against the strike would not have had any problem with the Labour Party not being broadcast. The working class, that supported the Labour Party, would not have though this fair as there was n ot being any representation for them generally. The TUC were able to broadcast speeches and allow some announcements through the BBC. The TUC relationship also went the other way in that they used the BBC broadcasts to provide them with their news. This shows us that the TUC did trust some of what the BBC was saying, but did not trust everything. They knew that it was primarily a middle class tool and not for their interests.However, we can also see that the TUC did send items in to the BBC asking for certain broadcasts to be corrected on the strike. However, this did not happen. The way that the TUC and the Labour Party were restricted from broadcasting shows us that the BBC did not want to lose its independence. However the BBC was supposed to promoted social unity something that it had been started in order to advocate. The problem was that the BBC was essentially owned, ran and listened to by the middle class. This meant that it was a middle class tool that essentially represent ed middle class interests and values under the guise of social unity.The working class on the other hand did not manage to have the BBC represent them, unless they were working class Conservatives. Their wants and needs were not catered for the TUC and the Labour Party bulletins were not broadcast. This meant that those for the strike were essentially were scribbled out of the bulletins and forgotten about. This may have caused these groups to feel resentment towards the BBC. However, we must bear in mind that the Conservatives were very popular during this period and as such would have had a large following going in 2 to the general strike we saw earlier that the election statistics gave the Conservatives nearly half of the vote in 1924, so there was many people middle and working class that were voting Conservative. Prior to the general strike, the BBC held the idea of having high moral standards as important. This is why John Reith believed that the BBC should allow broadcasts fr om the church. Through out the first years of the BBC and in to the general strike the BBC regularly had broadcasts from members of the clergy.However, during the general strike there was a controversial issue involving the BBC and the Archbishop of Canterbury. The church wanted to broadcast an appeal to both sides during the strike asking for a settlement61. The government said that this broadcast could not happen as it would lead to the BBC being commandeered. The broadcast did not go ahead. This shows us plainly that the Reithian ethos of high moral standards was a lesser need than that of the BBCs independence. It also shows us the grip that the government had over the BBC was supreme.There was no need to commandeer the BBC because the threat of it would have worried Reith in to broadcasting the viewpoint of the government to the listeners. In conclusion, we can see that the BBC was under a great deal of pressure from all of their external influences. This inevitably influenced the way that they broadcast to their listeners, however we can see that the most influential of these was by far the government. The reason for this was not only the fact that the BBC had the threat of losing their independence , but it was because the ideas that the government held on the strike were similar to that of the BBC.The message that Reith sent to Baldwin made this perfectly clear. The BBC did attempt to be as impartial as it could with out the government 61 Symons, Julian, The General Strike (House of Stratus, 2001) pp. 176-79 33 commandeering them. Reith did want to broadcast some of the items that, in the end, were not broadcast. As Reith has said himself, the decision lay with him. He could ultimately decide upon what went out to be broadcast, but he also had to decide how far he could take this before Winston Churchill and a few others in the cabinet decided that they wanted to commandeer the BBC.These pressures unfortunately affected the BBC and put them under great strain, which meant that the broadcasts often suffered, in turn meaning that the listeners opinion of the BBC also suffered. With a new set of listeners, it made the job of the BBC even more difficult because they had to cater for both the middle class and the working class alike. 34 Conclusion In conclusion, we can see that the British Broadcasting Company actually represented the general strike fairly to its listeners, despite being biased towards the government because of the pressure that was on it.This was because they managed to show that they could provide the relevant information to the nation. They also provided information to both sides of the conflict both the government and the Trades Union Council